Froehde’s Reagent

Purpose: Spot test for alkaloids and some phenols.

Procedure:

1. Dissolve 0.5 g molybdic acid (or MoO₃) in 100 ml concentrated sulfuric acid.

2. Prepare freshly before use.

3. Apply dropwise onto the test substance.

Liebermann’s Reagent

Purpose: Colorimetric spot test for alkaloids, especially morphine and codeine.

Procedure:

1. Slowly add 1 ml concentrated sulfuric acid to 1 ml of cold fuming nitric acid in a chilled container.

2. Mix well and use immediately.

⚠️ Use extreme caution due to strong acids and fumes.

  Dragendorff’s Reagent

Purpose: Detection of alkaloids in plant extracts or formulations.

Procedure (stock solution method):

1. Stock A: Dissolve 1.7 g bismuth subnitrate in 20 ml glacial acetic acid.

2. Stock B: Dissolve 40 g potassium iodide in 100 ml distilled water.

3. Mix 10 ml of A and 20 ml of B.

4. Dilute with distilled water to make 100 ml.

5. Store in a dark bottle; stable for weeks.

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DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN WATER (WINKLER METHOD)

AIM:
To determine the dissolved oxygen (DO) content in water.

APPARATUS:
BOD bottles, burette, pipette.

REAGENT:
Manganese sulfate, alkaline iodide, starch, sodium thiosulphate.

PRINCIPLE:
DO oxidizes Mn²⁺ to Mn⁴⁺, which liberates iodine that is titrated.

PROCEDURE:

• Add MnSO₄ and alkaline iodide to water sample.

• Allow precipitate to form and settle.

• Add H₂SO₄ to dissolve.

• Titrate liberated iodine with sodium thiosulphate using starch as indicator.

CALCULATION:
DO (mg/L) = Volume of thiosulfate used × Normality × 8

DETERMINATION OF CITRIC ACID IN FRUIT JUICE

AIM:
To estimate citric acid content in fruit juice.

APPARATUS:
Burette, conical flask, pipette.

REAGENT:
0.1M NaOH, phenolphthalein.

PRINCIPLE:
Citric acid neutralized by NaOH; endpoint indicated by pink color.

PROCEDURE:

• Pipette 10ml of juice into a flask.

• Add 2–3 drops phenolphthalein.

• Titrate with NaOH to pink endpoint.

CALCULATION:
% Citric Acid = Titre × 0.064 × 100 / Volume of sample